SPEAKERS & ABSTRACTS

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Choquequirao or the "other" Machu Picchu: Towards Sustainable Nature/Heritage Based Tourism Developments

Peru is known for its extremely diverse cultural and natural heritage. The tourism boom of the 1990s led to a fast and chaotic development of its infrastructures and apparently insurmountable environmental and logistical problems are now beginning to appear. Rapid tourism growth in Machu Picchu (the most visited Peruvian destination) has often been on the verge of being declared an endangered site by UNESCO. Despite such warnings, international tourism continues to increase by searching for, and exploiting, more previously undeveloped pristine areas and archaeological treasures.

This paper is about a recently "re-discovered" natural and archaeological park called Choquequirao which has similarities to Machu Picchu. This newly promoted tourism destination is "branded" as a mysterious citadel that remains unmapped and is situated in "one of the least explored areas on Earth." Located in Cuzco (Peruvian South Andes) at 3033 meters above sea level, this Inca citadel is known as "the other Machu Picchu." A Peruvian state organization is currently implementing the first stage of a Master Plan for the development of the park that is limited to biodiversity inventories, archaeological research, and tourist infrastructures focusing on the site's accessibility. Despite the fact that the Master Plan mentions and uses such concepts as "sustainability" and "responsible tourism," no vision of long-term preservation and protection from mass tourism is contemplated beyond the development of these basic facilities. This paper presents these two cases in a comparative perspective and argues that Choquequirao must develop an adequate and appropriate ecotourism management strategy that does not repeat the same mistakes as Machu Picchu.

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Baggelaar, Apinya (Thailand)

Authenticity versus Commidification: Atrocity Heritage Tourism at "Death Railway" of the Bridge Over the River Kwai and Its Associations, Thailand

The "Death Railway" of the Bridge over the River Kwai and its Associations is a good example of fast-growing heritage tourism. As a world-famous bridge and rail line that was built by prisoners of war during the Second World War under the Japanese Imperial Military, the numbers of lives that perished and the atrocities that had occurred during the construction has attracted visitors to the place. Eleven million international tourists arrive in Thailand annually, five million visit to the Kanchanaburi where the sites are located and, combined with local tourists, the number of visitors rises over 15 million per year.  The most visited places are the Bridge, the War Cemetery, war museums, and a ride on the original train across the Bridge and through the jungle where the rails were laid by the prisoners of war.

Since more than 20 years, the sites have been increasing in popularity as a tourism product. From a lack of good understanding of heritage management, it is seductively easy to destroy any connection of the social contexts in which heritage is nevertheless, always and inevitably, embedded. There certainly is something to these charges: the commodification of social and cultural experience commonly dislocates it from its living users and inhabitants, without regard to the interests of living populations. Another main reason is an economic interest that always plans an important role in heritage management in Thailand. A tourist's commodification of the places has overruled its authenticity. This paper will present the problem and suggest means to relocate the authenticity and a "sense of place" back to the heritage.

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Cultural Tourism in Asia and the Pacific Rim:  Trends and Challenges

Domestic and international tourism in Asia and the Pacific Rim are in an explosive growth phase.  People throughout the region are increasingly wealthy and mobile, while visitors from the US, Australia and Europe continue to arrive in huge numbers.  Travel is now a source of both education and recreation, while religious tourism and pilgrimage travel are major activities.  Discount airline travel in Asia is now a reality and will grow exponentially in the next few years.  The Borobudur World Heritage Site in Indonesia welcomes nearly 2.5 million visitors per annum, of which only about 150,000 are international arrivals.

Although the cultural landscapes of Asia and the Pacific Rim are rich and diversified, a great deal of recent tourism growth has focussed on the major cultural heritage sites and historic towns that are inscribed on the World Heritage List.  Other heritage places and settlements are just beginning to realise their potential to attract tourism.  Increased tourism places enormous pressures on the heritage resources of the region, creating challenges for both the conservation and tourism industries to preserve and manage these shared resources. 

This 2007 US/ICOMOS Conference in San Francisco examines the balance between Culture, Conservation and Economic Development.  The tourism industry typically regards heritage as a major attraction and source of economic wealth, while the conservation community believes cultural heritage forms an important and irreplaceable foundation for on-going human development, something that must be preserved and managed for future generations.  In fact the conservation community holds the keys to the long term sustainability of a major part of the world’s tourism assets.  Conservation is vital, but it must not take place in isolation.  Conservation or Preservation must include communicating the significance of heritage places to visitors and local people, gaining their support for long term, sustainable conservation. 

The two greatest challenges facing the management of tourism at heritage sites in the Asia Pacific region are:

1- Protecting the Integrity and Values of Heritage Places

2- Enhancing the Quality of Life of Local Communities

As the introductory presentation for the Conference, this paper will review a wide range of activities and programmes that have been developed over recent years in Asia and the Pacific.  There are many actors and many issues.  Subsequent papers will examine specific places, challenges and opportunities.  As a whole the conference will draw together diverse experiences and provide delegates with material that can be applied in their own professional circumstances.

While this US/ICOMOS Conference examines the situation in Asia and the Pacific Rim, most of the problems, challenges and outcomes are universal in their application.  One of the great advantages of such a conference is its role in building international best practice in the field of tourism management at places of heritage significance throughout the world.

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Presenting the Story of Convict Transportation in Three Pacific Islands

Both Britain and France established substantial penal settlements in the south Pacific during the late 18th and 19th centuries. This was one component of a set of larger patterns of movement of labour through forced and unforced migrations within and into the Pacific. While the transportation of convicts occurred in many parts of the world, the experience of Australia and the Pacific has some particular characteristics such as the relatively large and sustained nature of the transportation programs, and their inextricable relationship with the establishment of European colonies and the post-colonial nations of today.

This paper will compare the presentation of this history of forced migration in three Pacific Islands: Tasmania, Norfolk Island, and New Caledonia. In each of these cases, the island/peninsula landscape has been used to establish a complex system reflecting the philosophies of punishment and reform, subsistence and colonial exploitation of resources, and social hierarchy. In each of these places, the transportation of convicts to the South Pacific from Europe and its colonies has contributed to the heritage and contemporary identity of the present-day territory/nation.

However, despite this thread of shared history, its presentation to the world via the tourism industry varies considerably. The paper will examine some of the factors which contribute to these differences, including the historical and associative values of these complex landscapes, the degree to which the history is contested, the characteristics of the associated and "host" communities, the benefits for local communities, and the structure of the tourism market.

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Preservation by Interpretation: A visitor-centered approach to protecting heritage sites   

Jane Clark Chermayeff will present a comprehensive approach to preservation—one that employs interpretation to instill a sense of stewardship and advocacy among visitors.  As heritage sites become increasingly touristed, visitors' needs and assumptions will have profound affects on the preservation and appreciation of physical and cultural resources. A comprehensive approach to preservation responds to this reality by incorporating scholarship, stakeholder input, evaluation, conservation, and the requirements and limitations of tourism into interpretive planning. As a result, planners increase the likelihood that visitors will feel more invested in the care and conservation of the sites they experience — producing sustainable benefits for the sites and local communities.  
  
At the end of the panel sessions, Jane will moderate a discussion on the visitor experience and planning strategies for the future of heritage sites using Angkor Archeological Park, Cambodia, as a case study.  Visitor expectation and operational planning issues to be explored include: How will future changes in visitation affect stakeholders? How can short-term measures meet long-term concerns?   
 

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The Cultural Value of La Cuesta Encantada and the Economic Impact of Hearst Castle

The estate of William Randolph Hearst is the result of a nearly 30-year collaboration with architect Julia Morgan beginning in 1919. The estate served as a Mediterranean-style hilltop villa that showcased Hearst's extensive collections. It also served as a center for Hearst's business and financial empire related to the communications industry, the film industry, and politics.

Named La Cuesta Encantada during Hearst's time, the site became known to the public as Hearst Castle. During its construction and operation, the site was a major employer for San Luis Obispo County. The Hearst Corporation donated the hilltop to California State Parks nearly 50 years ago. Since opening as a heritage tourism site in June 1958, Hearst Castle has become a major economic engine in San Luis Obispo's tourist based economy.

Hearst Castle has approximately 700,000 visitors annually and is often visited for its "wow" factor. It is less recognized for its authenticity as a Country House of America's Gilded Age with a world-class collection of art and textiles as well as a significant and extensive cultural landscape. This presentation will look at the challenges in operating a major regional tourist attraction while still preserving the cultural values that exist in the site, the setting, and the collection.

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Convento or Invento: Issues of Authenticity and Heritage Tourism in Tucson, Arizona

Authenticity in preservation is an issue facing historic sites throughout the world, particularly when heritage tourism is relied on as a principal economic generator for a community or region. In Tucson, Arizona, the municipal government has embarked on an ambitious redevelopment project, called Rio Nuevo, whose goal is to revitalize Tucson's urban core as distinct activity zones, including civic, arts and entertainment districts, a riparian river park, and a historic/cultural area representing the "birthplace" of Tucson. The centerpiece of the historic/cultural area is the reconstruction of the circa 1800 Mission San Agustin complex of gardens, granary, chapel, and a large, 2-story administrative building known as the Convento.

Years of archaeological investigation have generated a great deal of information, but none that reveals the site's archaeological footprint, nor a complete picture of the exterior form or texture of the buildings. Professional preservationists argue that the proposed reconstruction of this site would create a false, disneylandesque sense of history; politicians and community residents are looking to heritage tourism as a key component in Tucson's redevelopment plans. This paper will discuss the issues of authenticity and heritage tourism as exemplified in historic sites throughout the world and how these issues are being played out in Tucson, Arizona.

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Sustainable Rural Tourism and Local Communities in Nepal

Cultural tourism, especially rural tourism in the South Asian countries is a growing attraction for international and domestic visitors seeking to experiment the simply way of life. This growing phenomenon is a bane and a blessing to the social structure and the economy of these rural communities, where there is a dearth of other economic activities. In today's competitive global market, the tranquility of rural tourism offers an attraction that survives on its uniqueness and cultural identity, which makes its conservation critical.

The national economy of Nepal and the local community depend heavily on the foreign currency earned through tourism. Nepal offers many destinations that combine culture and nature in addition to adventure tourism. Most of these destinations developed a gained popularity through word of mouth. However, in the recent years there have been a handful of concerted efforts towards planned destination development and promotion, with national and international support.

This paper intends to assess critically the leading projects that have focused on heritage conservation as the main objective to promote destinations. The paper will explore in-depth the Bandipur Eco-Cultural Tourism Project funded by the European Commission in partnership with two European cities that have proven experience in sustainable tourism practices to share with Nepal. This project has taken a unique approach integrating architectural, cultural, and natural conservation, local capacity building training, and promotion in its overall tourism strategy for Bandipur that allows for growth and changes, yet protects the natural and cultural resources for the benefit of the local population.

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Striking a Balance: Cultural Tourism and the Sustainable Management of Complex Heritage Sites

A reality of World Heritage listing for many sites is an increased pressure to form the basis of economic growth through tourism. This comes with associated issues of site degradation and loss of connection between local communities and their heritage. However, recent developments in the  World Heritage nomination and reporting process indicated a growing awareness of the need to better balance conservation with sustainable economic and social development. The issue of sustainable tourism is of particular concern to complex heritage sites such as cultural landscapes where significance is linked to intangible cultural heritage as much as it is to the built heritage.

In order to better understand the sustainability challenges facing complex heritage sites, this paper reports on the extent to which five heritage management plans address the issue of tourism. Literature drawn from the fields of strategic planning and tourism management describe two key themes impacting on sustainable practice--strategic planning and stakeholder participation. Content analysis has been used to determine the extent to which these principles have been integrated into the tourism management process at five World Heritage sites. The five sites are amongst the few on the World Heritage List that currently have comprehensive management plans in place. With the new UNESCO administrative and reporting requirements, these are likely to act as the model for management plans at other sites. It is therefore an opportune time to examine the extent to which they represent an appropriate model for the sustainable management of sites of heritage significance.

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Heritage Tourism and Sustainable Communities: Lessons from the Everyday Cultural Landscape of Japan

Addressing a major conference theme "how experiences in the Pacific Rim" relate to other regions of the world," this presentation will explore another aspect of heritage tourism--in this case the opportunity to learn from Japan's everyday cultural landscape and its many functioning, sustainable communities. From traditional shopping streets in Tokyo, to neighborhoods surrounding major cities, such places represent a relatively untapped resource for visitors to observe, for example, people living comfortably with density, the benefits of civil society, and the advantages of an all-encompassing public transportation network which makes possible a "car-optional" life.

Based on my over six years as a professor and Fulbright fellow studying Japan's everyday landscape, this illustrated presentation will include a case study on the high degree of practical bicycle use in the country. While being abandoned for cars in nations such as China, bicycles are still a preferred mode of transport in Japan for shopping, commuting, making deliveries, policing, etc. Communities sometimes even provide bicycles free-of-charge for tourist explorations. Practical bicycling in Japan is the vascular system for nourishing sustainable neighborhoods and one of many valuable object lessons the country has to offer citizens, from auto-addicted countries, seeking to redensify sprawl-ravaged communities.

The upside to this type of heritage tourism, bringing valuable lessons back to one's home country while giving encouragement to Japanese trying to preserve a "car-optional" life,, will also be discussed. So will a possible downside--the potential for commodification of what are now functioning, living, everyday places.

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Use of Ancient Memory as a Strategic Tool for Cultural Tourism

Gyeongju Historic Area, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000, is the most famous tourist site in the Republic of Korea. It contains a remarkable concentration of outstanding examples of Korean Buddhist art, in the form of sculptures, pagodas, the remains of temples, and giant tombs from the Silla dynasty (7th through 10th centuries CE). Recently, the National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, the government of Northern Gyeongsang province, and the municipality of Gyeongju city initiated a presumptive reconstruction project of Hwangryong temple's pagoda., which when it stood was one of the highest (approximately 80 meters in height) wooden pagodas in East Asian history. The basis purposes of the project are to inspire national pride through the lost history of ancient Korea, to use cultural property as an economic tool for domestic and international tourism, and to establish the identify of Gyeongju as an impressive historic capital within East Asian history. However, at several workshops and an international symposium held in 2006, various criticisms emerged from scholars and the public, including:

Why should the pagoda be reconstructed on the site without clear historic evidence? Is it for tourism or a patriotic sense of superiority?

Is the understanding of historical analysis of traditional timber pagodas at the proper level historically, technically, and even economically for the local community?

With these questions in mind, this paper will address how the presumptive reconstruction of Hwangryong temple's wooden pagoda in Gyeongju Historic Area could influence local society, and what interpretative management tools can be developed to assess the potential value of the site without losing its 'authenticity' and sense of place.

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Can Authenticity and Heritage Tourism Co-Exist at Kalapaupa National Historic Park?

The history of leprosy in Hawaii is a story of some 8,000 persons taken from their families and exiled to what was often referred to as a "living tomb." The Kalaupapa Park was established on December 22, 1980 to stand as a monument to man's ability to conquer, both physically and spiritually, not only a disease but man's inhumanity to man. Still in its formative years, the park is dedicated to: preserving the memories and experiences of the past, providing a well-maintained community to ensure that the last remaining forty-six residents may live out their lives in their homes, and to the education of present and future generations with regard to a disease that has been shrouded in fear and ignorance for centuries.

Is the National Park Service using innovative stewardship techniques to preserve the setting and landscape in their full authenticity at Kalaupapa? Is ephemeral evidence preserved for future enquires? What conservation skills are necessary to deal with this site of painful memory and preserve evidence of historical context? Major preservation work completed over the past four years by the Historic Preservation Training Center will illustrate lessons learned to define what indicators or analytical tools can be developed to assess the potential of sites of hurtful memory in the Pacific Rim for the appropriateness for tourism development without sacrificing authenticity and their spirit of place.

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Weishan Heritage Valley: Pre-Tourism Preservation and Conservation Planning in Yunnan, China

In 1999, the US China Arts Exchange at Columbia University and Chicago's Openlands Project partnered with Government officials in Yunnan province to create the Weishan Heritage Valley, the first heritage area in China. Centered on the historic Southern Silk Road town of  Weishan, birthplace of the 7th-century Nanzhao Empire and one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse regions of  China, the Heritage Valley combines natural and cultural preservation in an attempt to develop sustainable tourism, unlike nearby Dali or the World Heritage town of Lijiang, where tourism development has proceeded with a destructive rapidity.

Weishan officials have created a series of preservation and urban development regulations to prevent overdevelopment of Weishan's 13th-century old town, safeguard the 22 Taoist and Buddhist temples on adjacent Weibao mountain, and promote eco-friendly tourism in Gaoligongshan National Park. The presentation will focus on historic preservation in the old town. Graduate students in historic preservation have worked in Weishan during study trips in 2004 and 2006, preparing a plan for a Visitors Center on a Ming-era temple documenting a dozen traditional courtyard houses in the old town.

The presentation will emphasize how the support of international experts has reaffirmed the town's commitment to preservation values, in contrast to Lijiang and other sites overwhelmed by tourism. While the danger of commercial overdevelopment cannot be ruled out, such overdevelopment would require a policy change, thanks to the work of the Weishan Heritage Valley partnerships over the last seven years.

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Beyond Heritage Tourism: The Other Preservation Economics

Heritage tourism is a growing industry internationally that can have a profound and positive impact on local economics. The discussion of heritage tourism is certainly important including measuring its positive impacts and creating responses to mitigate its potentially negative effects. But too often is "heritage tourism" the default answer to the question "Are there any positive economic impacts of historic preservation?"

Research both in the United States and increasingly around the world has begun to demonstrate numerous additional (and perhaps more sustainable) answers to that question. These include direct impacts such as job creation, small business incubation, and center city revitalization. But also emerging are indirect economic impacts including the role of heritage buildings in a comprehensive sustainable development strategy, housing, mitigation of sprawl, and as a central element in taking advantage of economic globalization while mitigating cultural globalization.

This paper will identify the other economic impact measurements with examples of analysis from North America, Australia, Europe, and Asia.

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The Essence of Place: Achieving Harmony for Economic Development and Tourism in a Heritage and Cultural Landscape

Place theory exists at the intersection of economic growth and sustainability; of heritage and tourism. How do special places, including historic and cultural landscapes attractive to travelers, protect their character from modern day change?

Hanalei District is an example of a cultural landscape. Vernacular use and man-made structures interact with the natural setting, and this relationship creates the essence of the place. Marks of human habitation span several centuries including Polynesian settlement; missionary period; Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Filipino, Korean and Spanish villages formed to fish, ranch and work the sugar cane, coffee, and taro fields important to the economy of the area.

This rich cultural and heritage area boasts eight buildings and structures and one district on the National Register. The Hanalei River was designated one of fourteen National Heritage Rivers. The single winding road along the coast, Kuhio Highway, was placed on the National Register in 2004. With this designation can an acknowledgment that proper management was necessary. Tension over how to properly manage the road had a long history. Community interests and preservationists wanted to keep the existing character, its one-lane bridges, wooden guardrails and no shoulders or lighting. Transportation officials wanted to bring the road up to "current standards."

Polarized interests, tired of battling, sat down to understand each other in a process called "Context Sensitive Design." Concerns over liability and safety were reconciled with values of respect for the land and place. Connection to the land became the basis for management. The CSD process and resulting plan serve as a powerful case study applicable to management in other heritage and tourism corridors.

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From a Han Cultural City to a World Heritage Site

The development of heritage tourism facilitates urban conservation of an historical city because of its economic value that tourism generates, especially in developing or less developing countries. However, the balance between the local and the global is usually a challenge to most of the historical cities.

As the original birthplace of the draft bank system in China, the ancient city of Pingyao was founded around 1368 during the late Ming Dynasty and is the existing old city built according to the traditional ritual canoes. Because of its historical significance and architectural integrity, the walled city of Pingyao was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1997. This recognition has increased Pingyao's worldwide reputation and brought the chance for transformation to its social, cultural, financial, and physical environment.

In order to maximize the economic value of the site and to receive attention from domestic and international tourism, the government has developed the city into a living museum by way of restoring the city back to its original plan, such as city wall, temples, escort companies and financial banks from the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The development of heritage tourism has helped preserve the rich cultural essences, keeping cities alive and viable, and supplementing these cities' lack of financial support from the central government.

This suggests that the conservation of a living heritage site does not have to be separated from its cultural sustainability and from satisfying the curiosity of the tourist industry. Finding a balance point between tourism-driven displays and the authenticity of daily/local history is the lesson that the ancient town of Pingyao is learning right now.