“The past is everywhere.  All around us lie features which, like ourselves and our thoughts, have more or less recognisable antecedents.  Relics, histories, memories suffuse human experience.  Each particular trace of the past ultimately perishes, but collectively they are immortal.  Whether it is celebrated or rejected, attended to or ignored, the past is omnipresent”
(Lowenthal, 1985)

Introduction

A recent report suggested that faith tourism based on Christianity is one of the strongest growing sectors in international tourism today, generating at least US $1 billion per annum[1].  For instance, it is estimated that in 2000, some 30 million pilgrims visited Rome and 4 million visited the Holy Land.  We should also recognise that faith tourism is not just a feature of Christianity, but of almost every religion.  Indeed, some locations are important to more than one faith.   Jerusalem of course is sacred to three religions – Judaism, Christianity and Islam, a situation which brings with it additional challenges in terms of management.

And it isn’t just Christianity that generates high levels of visitor activity.  More than 2 million Hindus take part in the Kumbh Mela, whilst hundreds of thousands of Buddhists travel to Kandy, Sri Lanka, every year to the Esala Perahara, when the Sacred Tooth Relic of the Lord Buddha is paraded through the town.  And some 2.5 million Muslims travel to the Holy City of Makkah each year to perform Hajj – one of the five pillars of Islam.  The importance of the Hajj to the Saudi economy is considerable, with revenue from this year’s Hajj estimated at SR 5 billion (US $ 1.5 billion).  Of this, 40% of SR 2 billion (US $ 0.6 billion) was made from renting out apartment buildings to better off pilgrims[2]

However, my interest doesn’t lie just in this narrow sector of faith tourism but in the broader role of sacred sites in the overall tourism product.  In this paper I will explore some of the issues associated with tourism development and visitor management in historic cities with significant religious buildings such as cathedrals, temples and mosques.  I won’t however touch on graveyards, many of which also function both as sacred spaces but also tourist destinations – witness the large numbers of young people whose first point of call in Paris is Jim Morrison’s grave located in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in the east of Paris. 

Nor will I talk about the semi-sacred spaces found outside churches and other religious buildings, such as the space in front of a Cathedral that might at certain times of the year be used for ceremonial purposes, but often is used by tourists like any other plaza, with little respect to local custom or the value accorded to that place.

Tourism activity at religious sites

Although many people in the west are effectively living in a secular age, the built heritage associated with our religious traditions retains an appeal that often transcends our personal culture or faith.  But as a result of this interest, many of our churches, cathedrals, mosques and temples have effectively become yet one more element of the tourism product, effectively a substitute for castles, museums or archaeological sites.  At times it seems that for every pilgrim travelling through northern Spain to reach Santiago de Compostela to honour St James, there is an earnest young backpacker looking through a Frommers’ guidebook, struggling to comprehend the finer points of gothic cathedral architecture.

Research undertaken with visitors to churches in England found that most are in socio-economic groups ABC1 and are middle aged or older people, with children who have left the family home [3].  The same research identified five motivating factors for visiting churches, and suggested that they are likely to apply to cathedrals as well.  Whilst the spiritual motivation is important, it is by no means the only reason. Others identified included:

·          Impulse visits – the majority of visits, when passing as part of a day out

·          Family connections – relatives may be buried there, or they hold special memories of christenings and weddings

·          Connections with famous people such as St Mary’s in Scarborough, which has the grave of Anne Bronte

·          Personal interest in church architecture, often in stained glass

As an indication of how important religious buildings are to a nation’s tourism product, one need on consider the level of visitor activity at the cathedrals of the UK.  It is estimated that the UK’s 61 cathedrals attract around 19 million visits per annum excluding worshippers[4].  A further 12 million visits are made to our 17,000 churches and chapels.  Of the 50 most visited historic properties in the UK in 2000, 19 were cathedrals or churches and 5 of the top ten sites were cathedrals:

Table 1: Top ten most frequently visited historic properties in the UK, 2000

Site	1999 visits	2000 visits	% change
Tower of London	2,430,000	2,300,000	-5%
York Minster	1,900,000	1,750,000	-8%
Canterbury Cathedral	1,320,000	1,260,000	-4%
Westminster Abbey	1,260,000	1,230,000	-2%
Windsor Castle	1,280,000	1,130,000	-12%
Chester Cathedral	1,000,000	1,000,000	0%
St Paul’s Cathedral	1,070,000	940,000	-12%
Roman Baths, Bath	920,000	930,000	1%
Stonehenge	840,000	800,000	-4%
Warwick Castle	790,000	790,000	0%

Source: English Tourism Council (2001) The Heritage Monitor

Managing pilgrims

Of course, visits to holy places are nothing new – there are reports of pilgrimage to Jerusalem in the 3^rd century AD[5] and by the 4^th century such visits were so well established that a hospitality structure was in place, organised by local clergy.

Indeed, pilgrimage destinations for any faith tend to quickly develop the facilities needed to accommodate the needs of travellers.  The word ‘statio’ – the original Latin word for station – was a place on a pilgrim highway that provided welfare and sanctuary[6].

In Islam, the long history of the pilgrimage to Makkah – the Hajj – led first to an informal situation where different families and clans from Jeddah and Makkah took responsibility for managing different aspects of the hospitality function.  Some families arranged transport and accommodation for pilgrims travelling down from the Levant, others looked after the caravans coming up from the areas that are now Oman and Yemen, whilst others secured sufficient sheep to be ritually slaughtered at Eid al-Adha, the celebration at the end of the Hajj that commemorates the obedience of Abraham – the Prophet Ibrahim – when he was called upon to sacrifice his son Ismail and his triumph over the temptations of the devil. 

The medieval philosophy was that no pilgrim should need to enter a sacred site unwelcome or unannounced, hence the preferred arrangement for pilgrims to move in groups towards their final destination, having first arrived in an assembly station.  This remains true in the case of the Hajj where the logistics of managing 1.5 million international pilgrims and a further 0.5 million Saudis has created the need to establish a separate Ministry to deal with every aspect of the event.  One of the roles of the Ministry is to issue licences to private companies many of which are in the ownership of the same families who offered services to pilgrims hundreds of years ago and who continue to facilitate the Hajj operation. 

It is interesting too to note that the Ministry of Hajj was established many years before the Saudi government saw a need to set up a Ministry of Tourism.  One should note, however, that the Saudis do not perceive people coming to perform Hajj or Umrah – the little pilgrimage – as tourists despite the fact that pilgrims use almost every aspect of the hospitality and transport infrastructure, and despite that fact that pilgrimage is classified by the WTO as a form of tourism.  This is partly, I think, because of the obligatory nature of Hajj whereas tourism is by definition a discretionary activity, but is also reflects the seriousness with which the Kingdom’s rulers take their responsibility as Custodians of the Two Holy Mosques – a duty they perform on behalf of all Muslims.

Changing circumstances in the UK

I mentioned earlier the current importance of cathedrals and churches to tourism in the UK today.  In the past we too supported pilgrimage to holy shrines at Canterbury, Walsingham and Durham, for instance.  It is reported that St Margaret’s shrine in Dunfermline Abbey attracted up to 200,000 pilgrims per year in the middle ages, with peak periods seeing 20,000 people travelling to a town of only 2,000 residents [7].  However, pilgrimage was outlawed in 1559 after the reformation, and as a result the organised nature of visits to holy places quickly faded into memory.  It was only in the 20^th century, with the emergence of organised tourism, that large numbers of people once again visited the cathedrals and major churches of Britain.

By this time, the economies of historic cathedral towns had changed considerably.  Many had become market centres for the surrounding rural area, and some such as Oxford, Durham and St Andrews had also become important university towns.  Thus faith-based tourism became only one of many economic sectors to be accommodated within the urban structure. 

Tourism impacts on the built environment

As tourism of all kinds has grown, so has the pressure that it brings to bear on historic towns. Orbasli[8] identifies the following key problems associated with tourism pressures in historic towns:

·          Overcrowding

·          Traffic and parking

·          Insufficient services and infrastructure

·          Changes to ownership patterns and the loss of the traditional, mixed economy

A basic categorisation of the impact of visitors at cultural heritage sites, used by the International Ecotourism Society in its Destination Planning workshops, is as follows:

·          Accidental damage, erosion	·          Noise pollution
·          Changes in interior micro-climates	·          Pollution (fouling)
·          Crowding	·          Theft of artefacts/ building fabric
·          Littering	·          Vandalism & graffiti

So what of the problems faced by the religious buildings that form such an important part of the tourism experience in our historic towns?

Problems associated with tourism at cathedrals and churches in the UK

In 2000, ICOMOS UK undertook a major investigation looking at how cathedrals and churches meet the needs of their visitors[9], the project updating work done almost 25 years previously by the English Tourist Board.  Almost 100 cathedrals and churches took part, with the principal problems reported being as follows:

Table 2: Problems reported by cathedrals and churches accommodating tourists

Issue	2000 ICOMOS UK study	1977 ETB survey
Inadequate car & coach parking	54%	46%
Wear & tear on fabric	27%	33%
Occasional congestion, overcrowding	20%	33%
Theft	10%	-
Vandalism	10%	-
Noise	9%	-
Disturbance to services	9%	-

Source: ICOMOS UK

 It is unsurprising, perhaps, in a car-orientated society such as ours, that vehicle parking is the number one problem facing cathedrals and churches seeking to welcome tourists.  This was found to be even more of an issue at those churches and cathedrals accommodating 200,000 visitors+ per annum. 

Obviously this is a problem not just for religious buildings but for the wider tourism sector in historic towns, and is one that urban authorities are only now beginning to address.  The problem in historic towns is that the urban fabric in often is physically unable to accommodate more parking spaces, and when public spaces such as town squares are given over to parking as is often the first response, there is a negative impact on the quality of the tourism experience[10].  How then to address this problem, particularly when there exists a real tension between the tourism sector and broader urban conservation interests? As Orbasli comments:

“the unprecedented growth of cultural tourism and the ever increasing need for this economic input in town and cities is clearly influencing the approach to history and heritage in the urban environment. The commercialisation of heritage is in conflict with the essence of urban conservation[11]”.

Charging for vehicle access

One of the most radical solutions, and politically the most sensitive, is the introduction of tolls for drivers entering city centres in an attempt to secure modal shifts in transportation, and particularly encouraging people out of their cars and onto public transport.  Should this fail to secure the modal shift desired, at least it raises income that can be used to subsidise public transport services for others, or indeed other areas of municipal expenditure such as conservation of heritage buildings.

Although the introduction of the congestion charge in central London has received considerable media coverage in recent weeks, the historic city of Durham in the North of England has, for several months, been charging vehicles £2.00 (US $3.20) for admission into the city centre that contains not only the usual commercial facilities, but also one of the UK’s most visually outstanding World Heritage Sites.

Durham Cathedral and Castle are located on a small peninsula at the southern end of the city centre, and were given World Heritage Site status in 1986.  The Cathedral represents perhaps the best example of Romanesque ecclesiastical architecture in Northern Europe, and in heritage tourism terms, we are talking about one of the icons of the North of England. 

The cathedral attracts around 500,000 visitors every year, whilst the nearby castle is one of the colleges of Durham University although it too is able to accommodate around 140,000 visitors per annum on special guided tours.  Most of the other buildings on the peninsula are owned and used either by the university or the Dean and Chapter.  Thus the historic core of the city is both a tourist destination and a place to live and work. 

Most tourists come to Durham by car or coach, and the medieval road network leading up to Palace Green, which lies between the cathedral and castle, was becoming overcrowded and dangerous.  Before 2002, when the charge was introduced, some 2,000 vehicles a day were coming into the charging zone between 10 am and 4 pm.  This has been cut to around 200 vehicles – a massive 90% reduction in vehicle movements[12].  Supporting the charging scheme has been the introduction of a small bus between Palace Green and the main car parks around the city, the bus and rail stations.

To date, the effect on attendances at the cathedral has not been particularly noticeable but as we enter the main tourist season this may of course change.  Some local traders report lower sales since the scheme was introduced but again, this may reflect the current slow down in the UK economy. 

At Westminster Abbey in Central London, another World Heritage Site, where congestion charges have been levied since February of this year, there is less concern about the likely effect it will have on tourist numbers since the majority of Abbey visitors arrive either by coach or on public transport.  Oxford Cathedral, however, reports that the introduction of access restrictions and parking limits in the city centre in summer 1999 has led to a significant fall in visitor numbers[13].

Charging a flat fee for vehicles entering a particular zone or part of a city, such as in Durham and London, is what economists refer to as a regressive tax[14], in that the tax level is independent of the ability to pay, and the average rate paid falls as income increases (for instance, a US $ 2 toll on a weekly income of $100 per week is 2%, whilst $2 for someone earning $200 per week is only 1% of their income).

It is thus likely to favour better-off tourists who, as market research suggests, represent the core market for all types of cultural heritage tourism.

Thus charging for car access into historic city centres may have the twin benefits, from a tourism point of view, of reducing the overall intrusion of vehicles into an area whilst not unduly discriminating against the core market.  Whether or not it is ‘politically correct’ to be this exclusive is, of course, open to question.

Coach access

Coach access is another aspect of vehicle management that is crucial to the welcome that our cathedrals give visitors.  Yet again, many of our historic towns are unable to adequately cater for the needs of coach operators and strict parking and setting down/ pick up policies are imposed, much to the chagrin of tour operators whose itineraries are strictly timed and for whom walking time is preferably kept to a minimum.

At Lincoln Cathedral in Eastern England, the Dean and Chapter is negotiating with the Highways Department of the County Council over how additional coach drop-off points and parking can be provided so that the cathedral can benefit from the city’s emerging status as a tourism destination.  Finances are an essential part of the cathedral’s argument here – the annual maintenance budget for the cathedral alone exceeds £1 million (US $1.6 million) and admission charges account for some 50% of all revenue raised from visitors.  The more people that visit the cathedral, the higher the income and the easier it is to maintain the fabric of the building without drawing on the Church’s financial reserves. 

Unfortunately in Lincoln the situation is complicated by the urban morphology.  So-called ‘uphill Lincoln’ comprises a network of medieval streets, steep hills and narrow arches, including the only Roman arch still used by traffic in the UK today, 1,700 years after it was built.  As in Durham City, a ‘hopper’ bus has been introduced to link the cathedral and nearby castle with the main shopping area and rail station.  It is anticipated that this service will be extended to take in a new coach park and park & ride points in the future, although public support to date has been extremely limited. 

Congestion and crowding

Crowding is another problem faced inside and around religious buildings, particularly during festivals, ceremonies and other events. The ICOMOS UK survey found that the buildings with the largest numbers of visitors are not necessarily the most congested – unsurprisingly the size and structure of the building are also important considerations.

Causes of congestion at UK churches and cathedrals include:

·          Several coach parties arriving simultaneously

·          Wet days in July & August (i.e. the main tourist season)

·          Major events inside (flower festivals, concert rehearsals)

·          Major events outside (e.g. Lincoln’s Christmas Market)

Charging for access to religious buildings

One of the most dramatic solutions to the problem of crowding is to charge for admission.  As with the vehicle congestion charge already operating in two of the UK’s historic city centres, it is in effect a regressive tax although experience suggests that when applied in cathedrals and churches, it has the desired effect.

Westminster Abbey, part of the Westminster WHS in central London that also includes the Palace of Westminster – home to the UK parliament – and the historic Jewel Tower, has charged for access to some part of the Abbey for nearly 100 years.  For much of the last century, visitors paid only to see the Royal Chapels but by 1995 the Abbey’s visitor numbers were reaching 2.5 million visitors per annum and many worshippers were increasingly upset by the tendency for people to talk loudly and mill about.  In effect, the Abbey had become a convenient meeting room or meeting pint and its role as a place of worship forgotten or ignored. 

To address these problems the Dean and Chapter at Westminster introduced an initiative – Recovering the Calm – that included:

·          Raising the admission charge by 20%

·          Applying it to the whole of the Abbey, rather than just the Royal Tombs

·          Re-orienting visitor flow around the building and creating a single route

·          Providing rest points part way round the route

·          Designating a formal gathering point for coach parties in Dean’s Yard, outside the Abbey building but still within the precinct

·          Providing an additional exit part way round for time-pressed coach parties

·          Allowing those who wish to pray privately to enter the quiet nave free of charge through the Pilgrim Door

Overall visitor numbers declined by 60% from 2.5 million to around 1 million per annum, but overall income from visitors actually increased, since only a relatively small proportion of visitors previously paid to see the Royal Tombs.  The official press release from the Abbey, commenting on the success of Recovering the Calm, reported that:

“It must be very rare to find a solution to a loss of spirituality in the application of economics and management. Yet it has happened – and it has been a resounding success.  Worshippers are returning to the Abbey in steadily increasing numbers and the tourists have shown that they much prefer the new arrangements.

It must be said that Westminster Abbey is one of the few UK cathedrals and churches to levy an admission fee - most only ask for donations towards the upkeep of the building.  As an indication of the importance (or otherwise) of admission fees to the finances of some of our major places of worship, the ICOMOS UK survey found that for the 9 buildings in the sample that did levy such a charge, the contribution of admission fees to overall gross visitor income averaged 57%, ranging from 10% (St Patrick’s Cathedral, Armagh) to 90% (Oxford Cathedral).

Table 3: Relative contribution of different income streams, charging sites only

Site	Visitors (2000)	Donations	Admissions	Catering	Retail	Events	Other
		% of gross revenue
Canterbury Cathedral	1,350,000	1	53	1	40	-	5
Glastonbury Abbey	120,000	6	77	-	11	1	5
Lincoln Cathedral	200,000	15	50	10	15	-	10
St Paul’s, London	1,075,000	1	65	2	30	2	-
Oxford Cathedral	175,000	5	90	-	5	-	-
Westminster Abbey	1,270,000	3	61	6	27	2	1
St Patrick’s, Armagh	10,000	10	10	10	30	40	-
St Mary the Virgin, Oxford	300,000	5	60	10	25	-	-
St Mary’s, Rye	170,000	19	45	-	28	2	6
Average, all sites	n/a	7	57	7	23	9	5

Source: ICOMOS UK